Two powerful Christian states emerged, Aragon and Castile, united by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1474). Granada was conquered in 1492 and in the same year Columbus’s voyage led to the acquisition of most of Central/South America. During the 1400s/1500s Naples and Milan were added to the Spanish throne by inheritance whilst Burgundy and the Netherlands became Spanish provinces; union with Portugal (independent since 1100), also incorporated the Portuguese overseas possessions into the Spanish Empire. However, oppressive religious persecution, the Inquisition, reached its height in the reign of Phillip II; the Netherlands was permanently in revolt, the Armada was defeated in 1588 and the constant wars brought about economic exhaustion, worsened by the expulsion of the Moors and the Jews. By 1600 the power of Spain was in decline.

Portugal regained its independence in 1640 and Spain lost its other European possessions in 1714. In 1808 the country was occupied by French troops, the Bourbon monarchy was ejected and Napoleon declared his brother, Joseph, King of Spain. The French were defeated in the Peninsula War with British assistance, but Spain suffered from civil wars, revolutions and dictatorships throughout the 1800s. Most of Latin America was independent by 1825 and Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Philippines were lost in the Spanish-American War of 1898.

Support of Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship (1920s) did not save the monarchy; a republic was established in 1931. A liberal government was elected in 1936 but a military revolt, headed by General Franco, broke out in Spanish Morocco; rebels invaded mainland Spain; a civil war ensued; the rebels were aided by Germany/Italy and the republicans by the USSR/International Brigade. 1939; the victorious rebel Nationalists established a totalitarian regime, with the quasi-fascist Falange the only political party; General Franco as ‘El Caudillo’. Spain remained neutral in World War II; 1947 Franco promised restoration of the monarchy after his death.

In 1959 the government embarked on industrialisation/financial reforms which resulted in rapid economic growth and a considerable rise in living standards. Limited foreign investment was allowed and Spain improved its relations with most foreign countries, although continually pressing for the return of Gibraltar. In 1969 General Franco nominated Prince Juan Carlos de Bourbon, grandson of Alfonso XIII, the last reigning monarch of Spain, as his successor.

With the death of General Franco, Prince Juan Carlos took over as Head of State and was sworn in as King (1975); many exiled writers/artists returned and democratic institutions were introduced. In 1977 numerous political parties took part in general elections for the two-chamber Parliament. A new constitution was adopted (1978); fresh elections held in 1979.

The vast majority of Spaniards support the constitutional monarchy and regard King Juan Carlos as the guarantor of civil peace in the country, but an attempted coup in 1981 revealed the fragility of democratic institutions. However, the overwhelming vote for the Socialists in the 1982 election indicated a widespread desire for change within a democratic system and little support for a return to rule by the military, the financial establishment and the Church.

In the Basque region, the separatist organisation, ETA, continues to operate a campaign of terrorism; responsible for over 700 deaths since 1978, often using bombs and car-bombs. There is a running battle between the government and ETA, with truces declared from time to time.